List of Fallacies in Argument Essay Example for Free

List of Fallacies in line of business EssayA Formal delusion is an error in logic that can be seen in the arguments form with pop out requiring an understanding of the arguments content. All formal fallacies are specific qualitys of non sequiturs. * salute to fortune takes something for granted because it would probably be the case, (or might possibly be the case). * Argument from hallucination assumes that if an argument for some conclusion is fallacious, then the conclusion itself is false. * Base rate delusion making a probability discretion ground on conditional probabilities, without taking into account the effect of prior probabilities. * Conjunction false belief assumption that an outcome simultaneously square multiple conditions is more probable than an outcome satisfying a single unrivalled of them. * Masked man illusion (illicit substitution of identicals) the substitution of identical designators in a neat statement can lead to a false one. A Proposi tional fallacy is an error in logic that concerns step up propositions. For a compound proposition to be true, the truth values of its constituent parts must satisfy the relevant logical connectives which occur in it (most comm exactly and, or, not, only if, if and only if). The following fallacies involve inferences whose correctness is not guaranteed by the behavior of those logical connectives, and hence, which are not logically guaranteed to yield true conclusions.Types of Propositional fallacies* Affirming a disjunct reason that one disjunct of a logical disjunction must be false because the other disjunct is true A or B A therefore not B. * Affirming the consequent the agent in an indicative conditional is claimed to be true because the consequent is true if A, then B B, therefore A. * Denying the antecedent the consequent in an indicative conditional is claimed to be false because the antecedent is false if A, then B not A, therefore not B. A quantification fallacy is a n error in logic where the quantifiers of the introduces are in contradiction to the quantifier of the conclusion. Types of Quantification fallacies * Existential fallacy an argument has a universal premise and a particular conclusion. Syllogistic fallacies logical fallacies that occur in syllogisms.* Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise (illicit negative) when a categorical syllogism has a positive conclusion, exactly at least one negative premise. * Fallacy of exclusive premises a categorical syllogism that is invalid because both of its premises are negative. * Fallacy of quartette edgeinuss (quaternio terminorum) a categorical syllogism that has four ground. * Illicit major a categorical syllogism that is invalid because its major term is not distributed in the major premise but distributed in the conclusion. * Illicit minor a categorical syllogism that is invalid because its minor term is not distributed in the minor premise but distributed in the conclusio n. * Negative conclusion from affirmative premises (illicit affirmative) when a categorical syllogism has a negative conclusion but affirmative premises.* Fallacy of the undistributed mediate the middle term in a categorical syllogism is not distributed.11 Informal fallacies arguments that are fallacious for reasons other than structural (formal) flaws and which usually require examination of the arguments content. * Argument from ignorance ( supplication to ignorance, argumentum ad ignorantiam) assuming that a claim is true (or false) because it has not been proven false (true) or cannot be proven false (true). * Argument from repetition (argumentum ad nauseam) signifies that it has been discussed extensively until nobody cares to discuss it anymore.* Argument from silence (argumentum e silentio) where the conclusion is based on the absence of evidence, rather than the existence of evidence. * Argumentum verbosium See Proof by verbosity, below. * beggary the question (peti tio principii) the failure to provide what is essentially the conclusion of an argument as a premise, if so required. * (shifting the) Burden of proof (see onus probandi) I need not prove my claim, you must prove it is false. * Circular reasoning when the reasoner begins with what he or she is trying to end up with.* Circular cause and number where the consequence of the phenomenon is claimed to be its root cause. * Continuum fallacy (fallacy of the beard, line-drawing fallacy, sorites fallacy, fallacy of the heap, bald man fallacy) improperly rejecting a claim for being imprecise. * Correlation proves causation (cum hoc ergo propter hoc) a awry(p) assumption that correlation between both variables implies that one causes the other. * Correlative-based fallacies* Suppressed correlative where a correlative is redefined so that one alternative is made impossible. * Equivocation the misguide use of a term with more than one meaning (by glossing over which meaning is intend ed at a particular time). * Ambiguous middle term a common ambiguity in syllogisms in which the middle term is equivocated. * Ecological fallacy inferences about the nature of specific individuals are based solo upon aggregate statistics collected for the group to which those individuals belong.* Etymological fallacy which reasons that the starting timeal or historical meaning of a word or phrase is necessarily quasi(prenominal) to its actual present-day meaning. * Fallacy of composition assuming that something true of part of a whole must also be true of the whole. * Fallacy of share assuming that something true of a thing must also be true of all or some of its parts. * traitorously dilemma (false dichotomy, fallacy of bifurcation, black-or-white fallacy) two alternative statements are held to be the only possible options, when in reality there are more. * If-by-whiskey an argument that supports both sides of an issue by using terms that are selectively emotionally sen sitive.* Fallacy of many questions (complex question, fallacy of presupposition, loaded question, plurium interrogationum) someone asks a question that presupposes something that has not been proven or accepted by all the people involved. This fallacy is often apply rhetorically, so that the question limits direct replies to those that serve the questioners agenda. * Ludic fallacy the belief that the outcomes of a non-regulated random occurrences can be encapsulated by a statistic a failure to take into account unknown unknowns in determining the probability of an events taking place.* Fallacy of the single cause (causal oversimplification) it is fancied that there is one, simple cause of an outcome when in reality it may perk up been caused by a number of only jointly sufficient causes. * False attribution an advocate challenges to an irrelevant, unqualified, unidentified, biased or fabricated source in support of an argument. * Fallacy of quoting out of background (contex tomy) refers to the selective excerpting of words from their original context in a way that distorts the sources intended meaning. * Argument to moderation (false compromise, middle ground, fallacy of the mean) assuming that the compromise between two positions is always correct.* Gamblers fallacy the slander(p) belief that separate, independent events can affect the likelihood of another random event. If a coin flip lands on heads 10 times in a row, the belief that it is due to land on tails is incorrect. * Historians fallacy occurs when one assumes that decision makers of the past viewed events from the same perspective and having the same information as those by and by analyzing the decision.29 (Not to be confused with presentism, which is a mode of historical analysis in which present-day ideas, such as moral standards, are projected into the past.)* Homunculus fallacy where a middle-man is used for explanation, this sometimes leads to regressive middle-man. Explanations without actually explaining the real nature of a function or a process. Instead, it explains the invention in terms of the concept itself, without first delimit or explaining the original concept. * Inflation Of Conflict The experts of a field of knowledge disagree on a certain point, so the scholars must know nothing, and therefore the legitimacy of their entire field is put to question. * Incomplete comparison where not enough information is provided to make a complete comparison. * irreconcilable comparison where different methods of comparison are used, leaving one with a false impression of the whole comparison.* Ignoratio elenchi (irrelevant conclusion, missing the point) an argument that may in itself be valid, but does not address the issue in question. * Kettle logic using multiple inconsistent arguments to defend a position. * Mind projection fallacy when one considers the way he sees the world as the way the world really is. * Moving the goalposts (raising the b ar) argument in which evidence presented in response to a specific claim is dismissed and some other (often greater) evidence is demanded.* Nirvana fallacy (perfect solution fallacy) when solutions to problems are rejected because they are not perfect. * Onus probandi from Latin onus probandi incumbit ei qui dicit, non ei qui negat the burden of proof is on the soul who makes the claim, not on the person who denies (or questions the claim). It is a particular case of the argumentum ad ignorantiam fallacy, here the burden is shifted on the person defending against the command. * Petitio principii see begging the question.* Post hoc ergo propter hoc Latin for after this, therefore because of this (false cause, coincidental correlation, correlation without causation) X happened then Y happened therefore X caused Y. * Proof by verbosity (argumentum verbosium, proof by intimidation) submission of others to an argument too complex and verbose to reasonably deal with in all its int imate details. (See also Gish Gallop and argument from authority.) * Prosecutors fallacy a low probability of false matches does not mean a low probability of some false match being found. * Psychologists fallacy an observer presupposes the objectivity of his own perspective when analyzing a behavioral event. * Red herring a vocaliser attempts to appropriate an audience by deviating from the topic at hand by introducing a separate argument which the speaker believes will be easier to speak to.* regression toward the mean fallacy ascribes cause where none exists. The flaw is failing to account for natural fluctuations. It is frequently a special kind of the post hoc fallacy. * Reification (hypostatization) a fallacy of ambiguity, when an abstraction (abstract belief or hypothetical construct) is treated as if it were a concrete, real event or physical entity. In other words, it is the error of treating as a real thing something which is not a real thing, but merely an idea. * Retrospective determinism the argument that because some event has occurred, its occurrence must have been inevitable beforehand. * Shotgun argumentation the arguer offers such a large number of arguments for their position that the opponent cant possibly respond to all of them. (See Argument by verbosity and Gish Gallop, above.)* Special pleading where a proponent of a position attempts to cite something as an exemption to a generally accepted regularisation or principle without justifying the exemption. * Wrong direction cause and effect are reversed. The cause is said to be the effect and vice versa. Faulty initiations reach a conclusion from weak premises. Unlike fallacies of relevance, in fallacies of defective induction, the premises are related to the conclusions yet only weakly buttress the conclusions. A faulty generalization is olibanum produced. * Accident an ejection to a generalization is ignored. * No true Scotsman when a generalization is made true only wh en a counterexample is ruled out on shaky grounds.* Cherry picking (suppressed evidence, incomplete evidence) act of pointing at individual cases or data that seem to confirm a particular position, eyepatch ignoring a noteworthy portion of related cases or data that may contradict that position. * False coincidence an argument by analogy in which the analogy is poorly suited. * Hasty generalization (fallacy of insufficient statistics, fallacy of insufficient sample, fallacy of the lonely fact, leaping to a conclusion, hasty induction, secundum quid, converse accident) basing a broad conclusion on a small sample. * Misleading vividness involves describing an occurrence in vivid detail, even if it is an exceptional occurrence, to convince someone that it is a problem.* Overwhelming exception an accurate generalization that comes with qualifications which eliminate so many cases that what remains is much less impressive than the initial statement might have led one to assume. * Pathetic fallacy when an inanimate object is declared to have characteristics of animate objects. * Thought-terminating clich a commonly used phrase, sometimes passing as folk wisdom, used to quell cognitive dissonance, conceal lack of thought-entertainment, move onto other topics etc. but in any case, end the debate with a clichenot a point.A Red Herring fallacy is an error in logic where a proposition is, or is intended to be, misleading in ordain to make irrelevant or false inferences. In the general case any logical inference based on fake arguments, intended to supplant the lack of real arguments or to replace implicitly the subject of the discussion. Red herring argument given in response to another argument, which is irrelevant and draws precaution away from the subject of argument. * Ad hominem attacking the arguer instead of the argument.* Poisoning the well a type of ad hominem where adverse information about a target is presented with the intention of discreditin g everything that the target person says. * Abusive fallacy a subtype of ad hominem when it turns into name-calling rather than arguing about the originally proposed argument. * Argumentum ad baculum ( ingathering to the stick, salute to force, appeal to threat) an argument made through coercion or threats of force to support position. * Argumentum ad populum (appeal to widespread belief, bandwagon argument, appeal to the majority, appeal to the people) where a proposition is claimed to be true or good solely because many people believe it to be so.* hail to equality where an assertion is deemed true or false based on an assumed pretense of equality. * Association fallacy (guilt by association) arguing that because two things share a property they are the same * Appeal to authority where an assertion is deemed true because of the position or authority of the person asserting it. * Appeal to accomplishment where an assertion is deemed true or false based on the accomplishmen ts of the proposer. * Appeal to consequences (argumentum ad consequentiam) the conclusion is supported by a premise that asserts positive or negative consequences from some course of action in an attempt to distract from the initial discussion. * Appeal to emotion where an argument is made due to the manipulation of emotions, rather than the use of valid reasoning. * Appeal to fear a specific type of appeal to emotion where an argument is made by increasing fear and prejudice towards the opposing side.* Appeal to flattery a specific type of appeal to emotion where an argument is made due to the use of flattery to gather support. * Appeal to pity (argumentum ad misericordiam) an argument attempts to induce pity to sway opponents. * Appeal to ridicule an argument is made by presenting the opponents argument in a way that makes it appear ridiculous. * Appeal to spite a specific type of appeal to emotion where an argument is made through exploiting peoples bitterness or spite tow ards an opposing party* Wishful thinking a specific type of appeal to emotion where a decision is made according to what might be pleasing to imagine, rather than according to evidence or reason. * Appeal to motive where a premise is dismissed by calling into question the motives of its proposer * Appeal to novelty (argumentum ad novitam) where a proposal is claimed to be superior or dampen solely because it is new or modern. * Appeal to poverty (argumentum ad Lazarum) supporting a conclusion because the arguer is poor (or refuting because the arguer is wealthy). (Opposite of appeal to wealth.) * Appeal to tradition (argumentum ad antiquitam) a conclusion supported solely because it has long been held to be true.* Appeal to nature wherein judgement is based solely on whether the subject of judgement is natural or unnatural. For example (hypothetical) Cannabis is healthy because it is natural * Appeal to wealth (argumentum ad crumenam) supporting a conclusion because the arg uer is wealthy (or refuting because the arguer is poor). (Sometimes taken together with the appeal to poverty as a general appeal to the arguers financial situation.) * Argument from silence (argumentum ex silentio) a conclusion based on silence or lack of contrary evidence. * Bulverism (Psychogenetic Fallacy) inferring why an argument is being used, associating it to some psychological reason, then assuming it is invalid as a result. It is unlawful to assume that if the origin of an idea comes from a biased mind, then the idea itself must also be a false.* Chronological snobbery where a thesis is deemed incorrect because it was commonly held when something else, clearly false, was also commonly held * Genetic fallacy where a conclusion is suggested based solely on something or someones origin rather than its current meaning or context. * Judgmental language insulting or pejorative language to influence the recipients judgment * Naturalistic fallacy (isought fallacy, represen tational fallacy) claims about what ought to be on the basis of statements about what is. * Reductio ad Hitlerum (playing the Nazi card) comparing an opponent or their argument to Hitler or Nazism in an attempt to associate a position with one that is universally reviled (See also Godwins law)* Straw man an argument based on misrepresentation of an opponents position. * Texas sharpshooter fallacy improperly asserting a cause to explain a cluster of data. * Tu quoque (you too, appeal to hypocrisy) the argument states that a certain position is false or wrong and/or should be disregarded because its proponent fails to act consistently in accordance with that position. * Two wrongs make a right occurs when it is assumed that if one wrong is committed, another wrong will cancel it out. Conditional or questionable fallacies* Black swan blindness the argument that ignores low probability, high impact events, thus down playing the role of chance and under-representing known risks. * Broken window fallacy an argument which disregards lost opportunity costs (typically non-obvious, difficult to determine or otherwise hidden) associated with destroying property of others, or other ways of externalizing costs onto others. For example, an argument that states breaking a window generates income for a window fitter, but disregards the fact that the cash spent on the new window cannot now be spent on new shoes. * Definist fallacy involves the confusion between two notions by defining one in terms of the other.* Naturalistic fallacy attempts to prove a claim about ethics by appealing to a definition of the term good in terms of either one or more claims about natural properties (sometimes also taken to mean the appeal to nature) or Gods will. * slimy slope (thin edge of the wedge, camels nose) asserting that a relatively small first step inevitably leads to a chain of related events culminating in some significant impact/event that should not happen, thus the fir st step should not happen. While this fallacy is a popular one, the it is, in its essence, an appeal to probability fallacy. (e.g if person x does y then z would (probably) occur, leading to q, leading to w, leading to e.)